Recreation of Cheese-Making in East Asia
Introduction
The mozzarella stretches in long, delicate strands as they lift a warm, gooey bite to their mouth. The cheese, soft yet firm at its core, coats the tongue in a buttery richness with a hint of salt. Whether torn over a Caprese salad, bubbling atop a pizza, or eaten fresh from the block, cheese is undeniably a staple of American cuisine. From childhood grilled cheese sandwiches to charcuterie boards, it is as much a staple as bread or coffee, deeply ingrained in the nation’s diet.
Yet, take a step further into East Asia, and the story changes. In a region where umami broths, fermented soy, and rice dominate, cheese remains largely absent from traditional diets. The stretch of mozzarella or the sharp bite of aged cheddar is far from a daily indulgence. While global influences have made dairy products more accessible in modern times, the idea of cheese as a beloved everyday ingredient is still relatively foreign. And yet, this wasn’t always the case.
Surprisingly, medieval China had its own relationship with cheese. Contrary to assumptions of minimal dairy consumption, historical records show that cheese was produced and enjoyed in specific Chinese regions.[1] Nomadic influences from the north introduced dairy practices, and there are accounts of fermented and curdled milk products being part of the elite diet during the Tang and Yuan dynasties.[2] Over time, changing culinary preferences led to its decline, leaving behind only traces in regional traditions.
Today’s disconnect between cheese and East Asian cuisine makes its historical presence even more fascinating. While lasagna or blue cheese is second nature to the Western palate, dairy remains an afterthought in much of East Asia. Yet, history tells us that there was a time when cheese was relished, traded, and even prized in China.
Historical Context
During China’s medieval period, cheese was a celebrated part of the Chinese diet, particularly under the influence of Central Asian and Mongolian culinary traditions.[3] The presence of dairy in China was largely facilitated by the Mongols and other nomadic cultures, whose reliance on livestock-based food systems made dairy a natural dietary staple.[4] These influences helped integrate cheese into Chinese cooking, with records indicating that it was both widely used and appreciated.[5] This contradicts the belief that dairy was historically foreign to Chinese cuisine. Instead, cheese had a significant presence, supported by textual evidence.
Mr. Song’s Cheese’s provides a particularly compelling insight into the role of cheese in Chinese food history. Numerous recipes highlight that cheese was not just consumed but actively incorporated into diverse dishes.[6] This suggests a degree of culinary sophistication in handling dairy, contradicting modern assumptions that East Asian cuisines have always excluded cheese due to lactose intolerance or an inherent cultural aversion to dairy. Instead, the evidence suggests that historical shifts, rather than biological or cultural incompatibility, dictated the decline of cheese in Chinese cuisine.
Beyond cookbooks, literature from the period further cements cheese’s once-prominent role. The poet Zhu Xi’s remark, “No need for fancy morsels when there is cheese,” demonstrates a clear enthusiasm for dairy products.[7] This poetic appreciation suggests that cheese was a delicacy. Such literary references point to cheese’s embeddedness in the cultural fabric of medieval China, where it was enjoyed enough to warrant mention in artistic and intellectual circles.
However, cheese’s prominence faded after the Mongols’ departure from China in 1368 A.D. marked a turning point, as Mongolian dietary influences, including dairy, began to fade with the rise of the Ming Dynasty.[8] This period also saw an economic shift that made dairy farming less viable, particularly in southern China, where agriculture was largely rice-based and livestock farming played a less central role. Additionally, as Southern Chinese culinary traditions gained prominence, they increasingly defined what was considered “Chinese food.” Unlike northern cuisines, which had been shaped by Mongolian and Central Asian dairy consumption, southern food traditions were largely dairy-free. Over time, the consolidation of these culinary norms effectively erased cheese from the mainstream Chinese diet.
This historical shift illustrates how food culture is shaped by more than just taste preferences. It is deeply tied to economic, political, and geographic factors. While modern China has largely moved away from dairy as a staple, history shows that this was not always the case. Cheese was once valued, cooked with, and even celebrated in poetry. Yet, as external influences waned and economic realities changed, it was gradually forgotten. This historical context provides a counterpoint to contemporary assumptions about Chinese cuisine, revealing how food traditions are not static but are evolving based on broader societal changes.
Materials, Equipment, & Tools
Materials
● Whole milk (substituted for raw, unpasteurized milk)
● Distilled vinegar (acidic coagulant)
Equipment
● Pot
● Bowls
● Stove
● Microwave (used as an alternative to scalding hot water)
Tools
● Ladle or spoon for stirring
● Thermometer (if applicable, for monitoring temperature)
Unavailable Tools
● Cheesecloth or wrap (not available for use)
Primary Sources for Experimentation
Yet while the historical record confirms cheese’s presence in China’s culinary past, it leaves much to the imagination in terms of method and practice. The absence of precise instructions raises a compelling question: how do we recreate a lost food tradition using only fragmentary clues? To answer this, we turned to hands-on experimentation–beginning with the most accessible reference to historical Chinese cheese-making: Mr. Song’s “milk cakes.”
Mr. Song’s recipe offered little technical guidance for a modern cook. The text described a cheese made by curdling milk with a souring agent but lacked measurements, temperatures, or timing. Instructions like “cook until hot” or “drip in the souring agent” presumed intuitive knowledge rather than concrete steps.[9] To bridge this gap, we turned to Matt Tyler’s Pro Home Cooks video, “How to Make Mozzarella Cheese at Home.” His modern, step-by-step guide offered the structure we needed. Although Tyler used raw milk, citric acid, and rennet, we adapted his method with substitutions: whole pasteurized milk and distilled vinegar.[10] By combining historical references with modern instruction, we crafted a mozzarella-like cheese that brought the past into dialogue with the present.
Modern ingredient availability, safety considerations, and equipment limitations all influenced our approach. Each substitution was chosen, balancing historical inspiration with practical feasibility.
Substitutions and Justifications
Raw milk is difficult to obtain and presents potential safety concerns. Since whole milk retains the necessary fat content and similar protein structures, it serves as a reasonable alternative for cheese-making.
For the acidic coagulant, we selected distilled vinegar over lemon juice because it was easier to obtain in large quantities. Extracting a sufficient amount of lemon juice from fresh lemons would have been impractical, and even purchasing pre-bottled lemon juice raised concerns about whether there would be an adequate amount.
In place of scalding hot water, we used a microwave to heat the cheese curds. This substitution was made for convenience and efficiency, and we tried to ensure that the curds were not overheated, minimizing the potential impact on experimental results. Lastly, we did not have access to cheesecloth, which may have affected the final texture of the cheese but was not a major limitation in the process.
Our Procedure by Narrative:
1. We poured half a gallon of whole, pasteurized milk into a pot, placing it on the stovetop over low to medium heat. Instead of using a thermometer, we relied on touch to monitor the temperature, waiting until the pot felt warm to hot before moving to the next step.
2. Once we determined the milk had reached the right temperature, we added our souring agent, diluted distilled vinegar. Since there were no exact measurements provided in our reference, we added the vinegar one tablespoon at a time, stirring after each addition. We continued this process until we noticed the milk visibly curdling, which occurred after approximately seven tablespoons.
3. We let the milk fully curdle and waited until no further separation occurred. At this point, we removed the pot from the stovetop to prevent overheating.
4. Using a large spoon, we carefully scooped out the curds and transferred them into a separate bowl, ensuring that we drained out as much of the remaining liquid whey as possible.
5. Once we had gathered the curds, we began kneading them together into a single, cohesive clump. The curds initially felt soft and crumbly, so we worked them together by pressing and folding them until they started to hold their shape.
Image 1: Kneading the curds together into a cohesive clump, draining the excess water out
6. To enhance the texture and help the cheese become more elastic, we placed the cheese clump in the microwave for about 10 seconds – just enough to warm it up slightly without overheating.
7. After microwaving, we resumed kneading the cheese, continuing to fold and press the curds together until they formed a more uniform structure. At this point, the cheese no longer crumbled apart and felt smoother and more connected.
8. Once the cheese had reached the desired consistency, we shaped it into a round ball, pressing and smoothing the surface to give it a more polished appearance.
9. To help the cheese set properly, we tightly wrapped it in plastic Seran wrap and placed it in the refrigerator for two days.
10. After two days, we unwrapped the cheese and observed that the texture had significantly improved. It was much smoother, firmer, and more closely resembled mozzarella than when it was freshly made.
Image 2: Our final cheese product after refrigerating for 2 days with Seran wrap.
Comparisons in Cheese-Making for Mozzarella & Paneer
We compared our method to the approach demonstrated in Joshua Weissman’s video to identify similarities and differences in the cheese-making approach.[11] Overall, both methods followed the same fundamental steps: curdling milk with an acid, separating the curds from the whey, kneading the curds into a cohesive mass, and heating them to enhance texture and elasticity.
Our method relied solely on distilled vinegar, whereas Weissman’s recipe used citric acid and rennet, producing a firmer and stretchier curd. Unlike our approach, Weissman followed precise temperature control, heating the milk to 90°F before adding citric acid and then to 105°F after curd formation. Another major difference was in the stretching and molding process. We microwaved our curds briefly before kneading, whereas Weissman used a hot whey bath, allowing for better elasticity and structure.
To further explore the diversity of cheese-making, we examined paneer, a non-melting cheese commonly used in Indian cuisine.[12] While both cheeses begin with whole milk, which is heated and curdled using an acidic agent, the choice of coagulant, heating method, and curd treatment lead to distinct textures and uses. In our mozzarella experiment, the goal was to create a soft, stretchy cheese by using citric acid and rennet (or vinegar in our case). In contrast, the paneer-making process focuses on forming a firm, non-melting cheese by boiling the milk before adding vinegar, draining the curds, and pressing them underweight to remove excess moisture.
One of the biggest differences is the treatment of the curds after separation. In mozzarella-making, curds are gently handled and reheated to allow protein realignment, giving the cheese its signature stretch. In paneer-making, however, the curds are thoroughly rinsed, wrapped in a cloth, and subjected to heavy pressing for two hours, leading to a dense, crumbly structure that holds its shape when cut into cubes.
These comparisons highlight how small adjustments – boiling versus gentle heating, and pressing versus kneading can drastically transform a cheese’s texture, taste, and culinary use. They underscore the versatility of the cheese-making craft and how cultural context shapes each variation into a distinct and purposeful product.
Results, Reflections, & Conclusions
Overall, our experiment was successful in producing a mozzarella-like cheese, with a solid block structure, a taste comparable to mozzarella, and some degree of stretch, though the cheese did not maintain elasticity for long. A key factor in our success was carefully controlling the heating process. By ensuring the milk was heated but not boiled, we were able to achieve proper curd formation, following the recipe’s instructions. However, rather than relying solely on touch to gauge temperature, using a thermometer in future trials could improve consistency and precision.
Image 3: Our cheese product immediately after cooling. The cheese was solidified and could be sliced, but it had a grainy texture and some degree of stretchiness.
This experimental recreation reminded us that cheese-making is more than a recipe, shaped by necessity, innovation, and local resources. While medieval Chinese artisans relied on intuition and experience, we benefited from scientific knowledge and modern technology. Watching video tutorials offered clarity that historical texts could not, allowing us to see techniques in real-time.
One notable observation was the impact of refrigeration on texture. After two days in the cold, the cheese developed a smoother, more familiar mozzarella-like consistency. This raises questions about how traditional cheese-making processes, such as drying cheese under the sun, would alter its final texture. Additionally, we wonder how placing the curds in scalding hot water, rather than using a microwave, might affect the stretch and elasticity of the cheese. If historical cheese-makers kneaded curds in hot water, what techniques or tools – such as protective gloves – did they use to handle the heat?
Moving forward, we would refine our methodology by incorporating temperature monitoring, experimenting with different coagulation agents, and testing variations in curd handling techniques. Further exploration of traditional cheese-making practices could provide deeper insight into how different environmental and processing factors influence the final product.
Lastly, we would love to see how our mozzarella acts in combination with other dishes – including Margherita pizzas, lasagna, or salads – to observe if its core elemental properties behave as they should.
Bibliography
30 Minute Homemade Fresh Mozzarella Cheese, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mAxy_oXKJig.
Brown, Miranda. “Mr. Song’s Cheeses: Southern China, 1368–1644.” Gastronomica 19, no. 2 (May 1, 2019): 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2019.19.2.29.
How to Make Mozzarella Cheese 2 Ingredients Without Rennet | Homemade Cheese Recipe, 2021. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aewWUjnPSAs.
How to Make Paneer at Home | Indian Cheese (Paneer) Recipe | Easy Way to Make Paneer at Home, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iTrvMNcMlk.
South China Morning Post. “Chinese Cheese? You May Be Surprised at Its Long History,” August 6, 2021. https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/food-drink/article/3143737/cheese-china-has-long-history-made-buffalo-yak-goats-cows-and.
Zhu Xi. “Zhuzi wenji.” In Zhuzi wenji, 3:110. Taipei: Defu Wenjiao Jijinhui, 2000.
[1] Miranda Brown, “Mr. Song’s Cheeses: Southern China, 1368–1644,” Gastronomica 19, no. 2 (May 1, 2019): 29–42, https://doi.org/10.1525/gfc.2019.19.2.29.
[2] “Chinese Cheese? You May Be Surprised at Its Long History,” South China Morning Post, August 6, 2021, https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/food-drink/article/3143737/cheese-china-has-long-history-made-buffalo-yak-goats-cows-and.
[3] Brown, “Mr. Song’s Cheeses.”
[7] Zhu Xi, “Zhuzi wenji,” in Zhuzi wenji, vol. 3 (Taipei: Defu Wenjiao Jijinhui, 2000), 110.
[8] Brown, “Mr. Song’s Cheeses.”
[10] How to Make Mozzarella Cheese 2 Ingredients Without Rennet | Homemade Cheese Recipe, 2021, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aewWUjnPSAs.
[11] 30 Minute Homemade Fresh Mozzarella Cheese, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mAxy_oXKJig.
[12] How to Make Paneer at Home | Indian Cheese (Paneer) Recipe | Easy Way to Make Paneer at Home, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2iTrvMNcMlk.
